Claim profile
1900–1999

The 20th century

Whose names filled the books of the 20th century — anyone at all, however long dead — counted as mentions per million words printed, so a period that simply published more does not inflate anyone.

Talked about then

Whose names appeared most in Russian books during the 20th century — whenever they lived.

In books written inEnglish28,219German4,127French3,913Italian2,072Spanish1,601Russian838Chinese282Hebrew149
  1. 1Leo TolstoyLeo Tolstoy1828–1910 · 19th century · Writers2.6
  2. 2Patriarch Nikon of MoscowPatriarch Nikon of Moscow1605–1681 · 17th century · Religious Figures2.2
  3. 3Peter the GreatPeter the Great1672–1725 · 18th century · Politicians1.8
  4. 4Nicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of RussiaNicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of Russia1843–1865 · 19th century · Historical Figures1.5
  5. 5Macarius, Metropolitan of MoscowMacarius, Metropolitan of Moscow1482–1563 · 16th century · Writers1.5
  6. 6Boris GodunovBoris Godunov1552–1605 · 16th century · Politicians1.4
  7. 7Vladimir LeninVladimir Lenin1870–1924 · 20th century · Politicians1.4
  8. 8Nicholas I of RussiaNicholas I of Russia1796–1855 · 19th century · Models1.3
  9. 9Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich of RussiaGrand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich of Russia1859–1919 · 19th century · Historical Figures1.2
  10. 10Ivan the TerribleIvan the Terrible1530–1584 · 16th century · Politicians1.1
  11. 11Alexander I of RussiaAlexander I of Russia1777–1825 · 19th century · Historical Figures1.1
  12. 12Alexander II of RussiaAlexander II of Russia1818–1881 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.99
  13. 13Nicholas II of RussiaNicholas II of Russia1868–1918 · 20th century · Historical Figures0.99
  14. 14Maxim GorkyMaxim Gorky1868–1936 · 20th century · Writers0.98
  15. 15Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of RussiaAlexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia1904–1918 · 20th century · Historical Figures0.97
  16. 16Ivan I of TverIvan I of Tver1357–1425 · 14th century · Historical Figures0.92
  17. 17Alexis of RussiaAlexis of Russia1629–1676 · 17th century · Historical Figures0.86
  18. 18Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of RussiaGrand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia1832–1909 · 19th century · Politicians0.86
  19. 19Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of RussiaAlexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia1690–1718 · 18th century · Politicians0.78
  20. 20Andrei BelyAndrei Bely1880–1934 · 20th century · Writers0.74
  21. 21Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of RussiaGrand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia1847–1909 · 19th century · Politicians0.72
  22. 22Sergo OrdzhonikidzeSergo Ordzhonikidze1886–1937 · 20th century · Politicians0.72
  23. 23Ivan I Aleksandrovich, Prince of SmolenskIvan I Aleksandrovich, Prince of Smolenskdied 1359 · 14th century0.72
  24. 24Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of RussiaGrand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia1899–1918 · 20th century · Historical Figures0.70
  25. 25Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of RussiaGrand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia1827–1892 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.65
  26. 26Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of RussiaGrand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia1864–1931 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.64
  27. 27Alexander III of RussiaAlexander III of Russia1845–1894 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.63
  28. 28Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of RussiaGrand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia1857–1905 · 19th century · Politicians0.63
  29. 29Alexander BlokAlexander Blok1880–1921 · 20th century · Writers0.62
  30. 30Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of RussiaGrand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia1850–1908 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.59
  31. 31Alexandra VelyaminovaAlexandra Velyaminova1301–1364 · 14th century0.52
  32. 32Maria FeodorovnaMaria Feodorovna1847–1928 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.51
  33. 33Michael of RussiaMichael of Russia1596–1645 · 17th century · Historical Figures0.51
  34. 34Elizabeth of RussiaElizabeth of Russia1709–1761 · 18th century · Historical Figures0.48
  35. 35Vladimir MayakovskyVladimir Mayakovsky1893–1930 · 20th century · Writers0.47
  36. 36Aleksey TolstoyAleksey Tolstoy1882–1945 · 20th century · Writers0.45
  37. 37Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of RussiaGrand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia1860–1919 · 19th century · Politicians0.45
  38. 38Aleksey Konstantinovich TolstoyAleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy1817–1875 · 19th century · Writers0.43
  39. 39Maximus the GreekMaximus the Greek1475–1556 · 16th century · Writers0.43
  40. 40Olga Nikolaevna of RussiaOlga Nikolaevna of Russia1822–1892 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.43
  41. 41Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of RussiaGrand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia1895–1918 · 20th century · Historical Figures0.43
  42. 42Leonid AndreyevLeonid Andreyev1871–1919 · 20th century · Writers0.43
  43. 43Alexander PushkinAlexander Pushkin1799–1837 · 19th century · Writers0.41
  44. 44Boris YeltsinBoris Yeltsin1931–2007 · 20th century · Politicians0.41
  45. 45Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of RussiaGrand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia1779–1831 · 19th century · Politicians0.40
  46. 46Valery BryusovValery Bryusov1873–1924 · 20th century · Writers0.38
  47. 47Paul I of RussiaPaul I of Russia1754–1801 · 18th century · Historical Figures0.37
  48. 48Gleb UspenskyGleb Uspensky1843–1902 · 19th century · Writers0.37
  49. 49Boris of TverBoris of Tver1400–1461 · 15th century0.37
  50. 50Patriarch JoachimPatriarch Joachim1621–1690 · 17th century0.36
  51. 51Ivan FyodorovIvan Fyodorov1510–1583 · 16th century0.36
  52. 52Sergei YeseninSergei Yesenin1895–1925 · 20th century · Writers0.36
  53. 53Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of RussiaGrand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia1858–1915 · 19th century · Writers0.35
  54. 54Avraamy PalitsynAvraamy Palitsyn1550–1626 · 16th century · Writers0.34
  55. 55Vasili IV of RussiaVasili IV of Russia1552–1612 · 16th century · Historical Figures0.31
  56. 56Joseph StalinJoseph Stalin1878–1953 · 20th century · Politicians0.30
  57. 57Leonid BrezhnevLeonid Brezhnev1906–1982 · 20th century · Politicians0.29
  58. 58Anna of RussiaAnna of Russia1693–1740 · 18th century · Politicians0.29
  59. 59Anton ChekhovAnton Chekhov1860–1904 · 19th century · Writers0.28
  60. 60Stepan RazinStepan Razin1630–1671 · 17th century0.27
  61. 61Peter III of RussiaPeter III of Russia1728–1762 · 18th century · 🇩🇪 Germany · Historical Figures0.27
  62. 62Yuri GagarinYuri Gagarin1934–1968 · 20th century · Politicians0.26
  63. 63Anna AkhmatovaAnna Akhmatova1889–1966 · 20th century · Writers0.25
  64. 64Vladimir SolovyovVladimir Solovyov1853–1900 · 19th century · Academics0.24
  65. 65Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of RussiaGrand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia1897–1918 · 20th century · Historical Figures0.24
  66. 66Taras ShevchenkoTaras Shevchenko1814–1861 · 19th century · Writers0.24
  67. 67Catherine Pavlovna of RussiaCatherine Pavlovna of Russia1788–1819 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.24
  68. 68Georgi DimitrovGeorgi Dimitrov1882–1949 · 20th century · Politicians0.24
  69. 69Denis DavydovDenis Davydov1784–1839 · 19th century · Writers0.24
  70. 70Grand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna of RussiaGrand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna of Russia1825–1844 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.23
  71. 71Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of RussiaGrand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia1783–1801 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.22
  72. 72Nikita KhrushchevNikita Khrushchev1894–1971 · 20th century · Politicians0.22
  73. 73Symeon of PolotskSymeon of Polotsk1629–1680 · 17th century · Writers0.21
  74. 74HyacinthHyacinth1777–1853 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.21
  75. 75Marina TsvetaevaMarina Tsvetaeva1892–1941 · 20th century · Writers0.21
  76. 76Ilya EhrenburgIlya Ehrenburg1891–1967 · 20th century · Writers0.21
  77. 77Mikhail KalininMikhail Kalinin1875–1946 · 20th century · Politicians0.20
  78. 78Yemelyan PugachevYemelyan Pugachev1742–1775 · 18th century · Activists0.19
  79. 79Mikhail SholokhovMikhail Sholokhov1905–1984 · 20th century · Writers0.19
  80. 80Béla KunBéla Kun1886–1938 · 20th century · Activists0.19
  81. 81Mikhail LomonosovMikhail Lomonosov1711–1765 · 18th century · Scientists0.19
  82. 82Nikolai OstrovskyNikolai Ostrovsky1904–1936 · 20th century · Writers0.18
  83. 83Fyodor VolkovFyodor Volkov1729–1763 · 18th century · Actors0.17
  84. 84Grand Duchess Natalya Alexeyevna of RussiaGrand Duchess Natalya Alexeyevna of Russia1714–1728 · 18th century0.17
  85. 85Natalya Alexeevna of RussiaNatalya Alexeevna of Russia1673–1716 · 18th century · Writers0.17
  86. 86Dmitri MendeleevDmitri Mendeleev1834–1907 · 19th century · Scientists0.17
  87. 87Konstantin SimonovKonstantin Simonov1915–1979 · 20th century · Writers0.17
  88. 88Yanka KupalaYanka Kupala1882–1942 · 20th century · Writers0.17
  89. 89Konstantin of UglichKonstantin of Uglich1389–1434 · 15th century0.16
  90. 90Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of RussiaGrand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia1871–1899 · 19th century · Historical Figures0.16
  91. 91Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov1849–1936 · 19th century · Scientists0.16
  92. 92Vasili III of RussiaVasili III of Russia1479–1533 · 16th century · Politicians0.16
  93. 93Sholem AleichemSholem Aleichem1859–1916 · 19th century · Writers0.15
  94. 94Alexander SuvorovAlexander Suvorov1730–1800 · 18th century0.15
  95. 95Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of RussiaGrand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia1863–1919 · 19th century · Politicians0.14
  96. 96Fyodor DostoevskyFyodor Dostoevsky1821–1881 · 19th century · Writers0.14
  97. 97Mikhail GorbachevMikhail Gorbachev1931–2022 · 20th century · Politicians0.14
  98. 98Alexander BestuzhevAlexander Bestuzhev1797–1837 · 19th century · Writers0.14
  99. 99Alexander IvanovAlexander Ivanov1806–1858 · 19th century · Artists0.14
  100. 100Nadezhda KrupskayaNadezhda Krupskaya1869–1939 · 20th century · Politicians0.14

Lived then

The most notable people whose working lives fell in the 20th century, ranked where Wikipedia coverage and readership agree.

CountryAll🇺🇸 United States🇬🇧 United Kingdom🇫🇷 France🇩🇪 Germany🇮🇹 Italy🇮🇳 India🇯🇵 Japan🇨🇳 China🇨🇦 Canada🇸🇪 Sweden
FieldAllActorsPoliticiansMusiciansWritersDirectorsHistorical FiguresAcademicsFootballersScientistsArtists
  1. 1Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein1879–1955 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists11 decades
  2. 2Stephen HawkingStephen Hawking1942–2018 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists4 decades
  3. 3Marie CurieMarie Curie1867–1934 · Scientists4 decades
  4. 4Osama bin LadenOsama bin Laden1957–2011 · Scientists3 decades
  5. 5J. Robert OppenheimerJ. Robert Oppenheimer1904–1967 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists8 decades
  6. 6Werner HeisenbergWerner Heisenberg1901–1976 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists10 decades
  7. 7Enrico FermiEnrico Fermi1901–1954 · 🇮🇹 Italy · Scientists10 decades
  8. 8Wernher von BraunWernher von Braun1912–1977 · Scientists7 decades
  9. 9Niels BohrNiels Bohr1885–1962 · Scientists10 decades
  10. 10Richard FeynmanRichard Feynman1918–1988 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists4 decades
  11. 11Mikhail KalashnikovMikhail Kalashnikov1919–2013 · Scientists4 decades
  12. 12Erwin SchrödingerErwin Schrödinger1887–1961 · 🇦🇹 Austria · Scientists11 decades
  13. 13Miguel Díaz-CanelMiguel Díaz-Canelborn 1960 · Scientists0 decades
  14. 14Carl SaganCarl Sagan1934–1996 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists6 decades
  15. 15Steve WozniakSteve Wozniakborn 1950 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists4 decades
  16. 16Howard HughesHoward Hughes1905–1976 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists9 decades
  17. 17Alexander FlemingAlexander Fleming1881–1955 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists8 decades
  18. 18Richard DawkinsRichard Dawkinsborn 1941 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists4 decades
  19. 19Edward TellerEdward Teller1908–2003 · Scientists8 decades
  20. 20Roger PenroseRoger Penroseborn 1931 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists3 decades
  21. 21Boris NemtsovBoris Nemtsov1959–2015 · Scientists3 decades
  22. 22Rosalind FranklinRosalind Franklin1920–1958 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists4 decades
  23. 23Neil deGrasse TysonNeil deGrasse Tysonborn 1958 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists1 decades
  24. 24Paul DiracPaul Dirac1902–1984 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists3 decades
  25. 25Irène Joliot-CurieIrène Joliot-Curie1897–1956 · 🇫🇷 France · Scientists8 decades
  26. 26Guglielmo MarconiGuglielmo Marconi1874–1937 · 🇮🇹 Italy · Scientists13 decades
  27. 27Eugene WignerEugene Wigner1902–1995 · Scientists0 decades
  28. 28Otto SkorzenyOtto Skorzeny1908–1975 · 🇦🇹 Austria · Scientists6 decades
  29. 29Sergei KorolevSergei Korolev1906–1966 · Scientists6 decades
  30. 30Fritz HaberFritz Haber1868–1934 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists11 decades
  31. 31C. V. RamanC. V. Raman1888–1970 · 🇮🇳 India · Scientists0 decades
  32. 32Ernest RutherfordErnest Rutherford1871–1937 · 🇳🇿 New Zealand · Scientists12 decades
  33. 33Max BornMax Born1882–1970 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists9 decades
  34. 34Ada YonathAda Yonathborn 1939 · 🇮🇱 Israel · Scientistsnot measured—
  35. 35Andrei SakharovAndrei Sakharov1921–1989 · Scientists5 decades
  36. 36Sally RideSally Ride1951–2012 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists4 decades
  37. 37Lev LandauLev Landau1908–1968 · Scientists6 decades
  38. 38Primo LeviPrimo Levi1919–1987 · 🇮🇹 Italy · Scientists11 decades
  39. 39James WatsonJames Watson1928–2025 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists10 decades
  40. 40Ferdinand PorscheFerdinand Porsche1875–1951 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists9 decades
  41. 41Jonas SalkJonas Salk1914–1995 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists7 decades
  42. 42Zbigniew BrzezinskiZbigniew Brzezinski1928–2017 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists6 decades
  43. 43Linus PaulingLinus Pauling1901–1994 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists9 decades
  44. 44Lise MeitnerLise Meitner1878–1968 · 🇦🇹 Austria · Scientists12 decades
  45. 45Eric SchmidtEric Schmidtborn 1955 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists3 decades
  46. 46Santiago CalatravaSantiago Calatravaborn 1951 · 🇪🇸 Spain · Scientists3 decades
  47. 47Ernest LawrenceErnest Lawrence1901–1958 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists8 decades
  48. 48Igor SikorskyIgor Sikorsky1889–1972 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists8 decades
  49. 49Valery LegasovValery Legasov1936–1988 · Scientistsnot measured—
  50. 50Georges LemaîtreGeorges Lemaître1894–1966 · Scientists7 decades
  51. 51Rachel CarsonRachel Carson1907–1964 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists7 decades
  52. 52Subrahmanyan ChandrasekharSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar1910–1995 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists0 decades
  53. 53Millvina DeanMillvina Dean1912–2009 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientistsnot measured—
  54. 54John McCarthyJohn McCarthy1927–2011 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists10 decades
  55. 55Kip S. ThorneKip S. Thorneborn 1940 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists0 decades
  56. 56Soichiro HondaSoichiro Honda1906–1991 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientists0 decades
  57. 57Tu YouyouTu Youyouborn 1930 · 🇨🇳 China · Scientistsnot measured—
  58. 58Alberto Santos-DumontAlberto Santos-Dumont1873–1932 · 🇧🇷 Brazil · Scientists0 decades
  59. 59Jack LaLanneJack LaLanne1914–2011 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists0 decades
  60. 60Raymond KurzweilRaymond Kurzweilborn 1948 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists0 decades
  61. 61Albert HofmannAlbert Hofmann1906–2008 · 🇨🇭 Switzerland · Scientists8 decades
  62. 62Konrad ZuseKonrad Zuse1910–1995 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists6 decades
  63. 63Homi Jehangir BhabhaHomi Jehangir Bhabha1909–1966 · 🇮🇳 India · Scientists0 decades
  64. 64Wolfgang PauliWolfgang Pauli1900–1958 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists12 decades
  65. 65Vladimir KomarovVladimir Komarov1927–1967 · Scientists7 decades
  66. 66Michio KakuMichio Kakuborn 1947 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists2 decades
  67. 67Igor KurchatovIgor Kurchatov1903–1960 · Scientists7 decades
  68. 68Trofim LysenkoTrofim Lysenko1898–1976 · Scientists8 decades
  69. 69Sergei KrikalevSergei Krikalevborn 1958 · Scientistsnot measured—
  70. 70Hideki ShirakawaHideki Shirakawaborn 1936 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientists0 decades
  71. 71Edwin HubbleEdwin Hubble1889–1953 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists5 decades
  72. 72Vera RubinVera Rubin1928–2016 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists1 decades
  73. 73Willis CarrierWillis Carrier1876–1950 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientistsnot measured—
  74. 74Chen-ning YangChen-ning Yang1922–2025 · 🇨🇳 China · Scientists8 decades
  75. 75Otto HahnOtto Hahn1879–1968 · 🇩🇪 Germany · Scientists14 decades
  76. 76Thomas KuhnThomas Kuhn1922–1996 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists5 decades
  77. 77William Bradford ShockleyWilliam Bradford Shockley1910–1989 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists7 decades
  78. 78Yoshinori OhsumiYoshinori Ohsumiborn 1945 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientists0 decades
  79. 79Hideki YukawaHideki Yukawa1907–1981 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientists0 decades
  80. 80Ernő RubikErnő Rubikborn 1944 · Scientists0 decades
  81. 81Stephen Jay GouldStephen Jay Gould1941–2002 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists4 decades
  82. 82Norman BorlaugNorman Borlaug1914–2009 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists5 decades
  83. 83Francis CrickFrancis Crick1916–2004 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists5 decades
  84. 84Klaus FuchsKlaus Fuchs1911–1988 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientistsnot measured—
  85. 85Tsutomu YamaguchiTsutomu Yamaguchi1916–2010 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientistsnot measured—
  86. 86Vint CerfVint Cerfborn 1943 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists1 decades
  87. 87Akio MoritaAkio Morita1921–1999 · 🇯🇵 Japan · Scientistsnot measured—
  88. 88Hans BetheHans Bethe1906–2005 · 🇫🇷 France · Scientists7 decades
  89. 89Freeman DysonFreeman Dyson1923–2020 · 🇬🇧 United Kingdom · Scientists6 decades
  90. 90Judith ResnikJudith Resnik1949–1986 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists3 decades
  91. 91Edward WittenEdward Wittenborn 1951 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists0 decades
  92. 92Satyendra Nath BoseSatyendra Nath Bose1894–1974 · 🇮🇳 India · Scientists0 decades
  93. 93Frédéric Joliot-CurieFrédéric Joliot-Curie1900–1958 · 🇫🇷 France · Scientists8 decades
  94. 94Ettore MajoranaEttore Majoranaborn 1906 · 🇮🇹 Italy · Scientistsnot measured—
  95. 95David SuzukiDavid Suzukiborn 1936 · 🇨🇦 Canada · Scientistsnot measured—
  96. 96Chien-Shiung WuChien-Shiung Wu1912–1997 · 🇺🇸 United States · Scientists6 decades
  97. 97Konrad LorenzKonrad Lorenz1903–1989 · 🇦🇹 Austria · Scientists9 decades
  98. 98Abdul Qadeer KhanAbdul Qadeer Khan1936–2021 · 🇮🇳 India · Scientistsnot measured—
  99. 99Louis de BroglieLouis de Broglie1892–1987 · 🇫🇷 France · Scientists10 decades
  100. 100Abdus SalamAbdus Salam1926–1996 · Scientists7 decades

How this is measured

  • Placing people in time. Each person belongs to the century in which they were most active — around age 35, and never after their death.
  • Who ranks highest. Within a century, people are ranked where two independent signals agree: how many of the world’s Wikipedia language editions cover them, and how many people actually read about them. Article counts alone can be lifted by a person’s own circle; readers cannot.
  • Fame in print. The curves count how often a name appears in Google Books from 1800 to 2019, as a share of all the words printed each year, in the person’s own language wherever that corpus exists. Those decades are over, so each measurement is made once and kept.
  • What is left out. A lifetime is measured only from 1820, when there is enough print to judge; the five years after a death are skipped as obituaries; and a name shared with someone equally notable is credited to neither.