Pope Urban IV

Born around 1195 as James Pantaleon in France, he rose through Church ranks without the cardinal's hat that typically preceded the papacy. On 29 August 1261, he was elected head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States, shattering the unwritten rule that only cardinals could ascend to Peter's throne. His three-year reign set a precedent followed by just five others over the centuries: Gregory X, Celestine V, Clement V, Urban V, and Urban VI. He died on 2 October 1264, having proven the tiara could rest on a head that never wore the red.